英语习语研究：从认知语义学的视角

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中文摘要

英文习语是一种广泛存在的形式固定的语言现象。要说地道的英语，记忆大

量习语是必要的。实际上，人们不需要刻意记忆所有遇到的习语。因为许多习语

的比喻意义都是可以理解的，虽然它们的字面意义不寻常。研究英语习语，我们

可以从中窥见隐藏在人类头脑里的概念体系。鉴于习语背后的认知基础，我们说

习语是有理据的。

许多习语可以由他们的主要形式而派生出另外的变体。习语的可变性证明习语

可以被不同程度的分析分解。这一事否认了一种说法，这种说法认为习语是不可

随意义拆分的，是死喻。

本文分析的理论框架选自认知语义学内部的著名理论，并用其来分析某些习

语。认知语义学的主导原则及哲学基础在第三章有所介绍。

认知语义学的哲学基础是：人类对世界的认知是通过人的身体与世界的互动来

实现的。人类头脑中的意义不是直接由物质世界决定，而是通过人类个体主观构

建的。这一能动的构建来自人的身体与物质世界的互动。因此，可以说意义是和

人的身体密切联系的。

有这样的哲学思想为我们提供了一个全新的视角来研究英语习语。我们知道语

言，不仅仅是习语，要追溯其根源，可以追溯到那些很原始的与人体有关的因素。

在第四章，讨论了认知语义学的一些著名理论对英语习语理解的启示。这些著

名理论包括：图式、百科观里的语义框架和域、隐喻借代、以及概念整合理论。

讨论进一步加深了对人类认知体系的认识和其在语言特别是习语中的反映。

图式是一种抽象的概念模式，是在人类与物质世界的广泛接触中，在人类头脑

的概念体系中高度概括形成的。许多习语，特别是那些含有介词的习语最能体现

图式在概念体系里的存在。有学者认为应该把“力”纳入图式理论。这一新引入

的元素，我们可以在分析习语的时候把它作为一项参数。

我们对习语的理解依赖于我们一直积累的背景知识，这就是我们的百科知识。

事实上，语言的字面意义仅仅是人类知识和概念体系里的一小部分。我们表达思

想所选择的语言也只是可选择表达的一种路径，还有更多潜在的表达方式。

对许多习语的理解可以借助于人类的两种认知机制：隐喻与借代。有的学者认

为借代是人类最基本的认知机制，比隐喻还要根本。并且隐喻源于借代。在一个

英语习语里，隐喻与借代交织共存的现象很常见。

概念整合理论运用于分析新奇的语言表达方式，例如前后矛盾的表达。整合出

来的意义结构不是原先各部分的简单相加，因为在整合后，出现了一个突生结构。

正是这个结构使表达有了新意。

英语习语有它的理据性。很大程度上，我们可以借助认知语言学来分析它的理

据。因为人类语言的产生和使用是基于人类的认知体系的。

关键词：英语习语认知语义学习语理解

iii

ABSTRACT

Idioms are a kind of formulaic language forms that widely exist in English. To speak

natural English, one has to memorize a large number of idioms. As a matter of fact,

people do not have to learn every idiom they meet by rote. For many idioms are

comprehensible for their figurative meanings, although they may have strange literal

meanings. By the research of idioms, we can observe the underlying scheme of human

conceptual system. Because of the perceptual and conceptual basis, we can say idioms

are motivated.

Some idioms can be modified slightly from their canonical form. And the

modifiability of idioms proves that idioms can be analyzed to different extents. This fact

denies the claim that idioms are non-decomposable phrases which contain dead

metaphors.

The analytic framework used in the analysis of some selected idioms is under the

title of cognitive semantics. The guiding principles and philosophical foundation of

cognitive semantics are introduced in Chapter Three.

The philosophical foundation of cognitive semantics is human cognition to the

world derived from human embodied interaction with the world. And meaning is not

determined directly by reality, but by human subjective construction which comes from

human physical interaction with the objective world. Therefore, meaning is embodied.

With this idea in mind, we see idioms in a new perspective. The meaning of

language, certainly including idioms, can be traced to very basic elements relevant to

human body.

Chapter Four is the discussion of some theories in Cognitive semantics which shed

light on idiom comprehension. The theories included are: image schemas, frame,

domain, metaphor and metonymy mechanism, and blending theory. The discussion

deepens our understanding towards human conceptual system and its refection in

language, especially in idioms.

Image schemas is a kind of abstract conceptual patterns that human extracted from

extensive experience with the physical world. Many idioms, especially those containing

some prepositions embody the image schemas which exist in our conceptual level of

mind. Some researchers consider another element FORCE as a part of image schemas.

This newly-introduced element deserves our investigation in idioms.

Our comprehension of idioms depends on our background information, that’s our

encyclopedic knowledge of the world. In fact, lexical meaning only comprises a very

small part of our human knowledge and conceptual system. The language we choose is

only one route we take to express our idea.

The comprehensions of many idioms are based on two kinds of human conceptual

schemes: metaphor and metonymy. Some scholars proclaim that metonymy is the very

basic mechanism for human thinking, more fundamental than metaphor. And metaphor

derives from metonymy. The mingling of metaphor and metonymy is common in

idioms.

The Blending Theory is used in analyzing some novel way of expression, such as

counterfactuals. The structure of the integrated outcome is not simply the sum of its

individual parts for it has an emergent structure after the process of integration. This

emergent structure gives the novel implication to the expression.

Idiom is a language phenomenon that has its motivation. We can analyze its

motivation largely with the help of cognitive linguistics, because human conceptual

system is the basis underlying language.

Key Word: English idioms, Cognitive Semantics, Idiom

Comprehension

Contents

中文摘要…………………………………………………………………………...…….i

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………….……iii

Chapter One Introduction……………………………………………………………..1

§1.1 Idiom, cognition and idiomaticity…………………………………………….1

§1.2 The definition of idioms………………………………………………………2

§1.3 Traditional view on idioms……………………………………………………2

§1.4 Idiom modification……………………………………………………...…….4

§1.5 Analyzability of idioms………………………………...……………………..4

§1.6 Study purpose, method and data collection……………..………...…………..6

Chapter Two Literature Review………………………………………...……………..8

§2.1 Scholars’ discussions on idioms and idiomaticity.............................................8

§2.2 Idiom decomposability and processing………………………….…………..13

§2.3 Composition, decomposition and transparency…………………..………….17

Chapter Three Analytic Framework: Cognitive Semantics………………….………22

§3.1 Cognitive Semantics………............................................................................22

§3.2 Four guiding principles of cognitive semantics……………………….….….22

§3.3 Philosophical Foundation of Cognitive Semantics……………………...…...26

Chapter Four Cognitive Semantics and Idiom Comprehension…………….……….32

§4.1Embodiment, Conceptual structure and Idiom Comprehension……………...32

§4.1.1 Image schemas........................................................................................32

§4.1.1.1 Scholars’ definitions of image schemas……………………..…..33

§4.1.1.2 Image schemas and idioms............................................................34

§4.1.1.3 Image schemas and conceptual metaphors………………………35

§4.1.2 Conceptual structure…………………………………………….……..36

§4.1.2.1 Semantic structure…………………………………………….…36

§4.1.3 The dynamic embodiment of image schemas……………………….…37

§4.1.3.1 Forces in image schemas and verb idioms….…………………...37

§4.2 The Encyclopaedic View and Idiom Comprehension.……………….……...40

§4.2.1 The encyclopaedic knowledge and idiom comprehension..…..……….40

§4.2.2 Frame semantics and idiom comprehension…..……………………….44

§4.2.2.1 A semantic frame...........................................................................44

§4.2.2.2 Frames and cognitive psychology……………………………….45

§4.2.2.3 Event-sequence potential……….……………………...……...…46

§4.2.2.4 The ANGRY frame idioms……………………………………....46

§4.2.2.5 The functions of frame in analyzing idioms………………….….49

§4.2.3 The theory of domains and idiom comprehension.……………...…….50

§4.2.3.1 Definition of domain.....................................................................50

§4.2.3.2 Basic, abstract domains and image schemas…………………….51

§4.2.3.3 Human color visual system and idioms.……………………...….54

§4.2.3.4 Active zones in idioms……………………….………………….54

§4.2.4 The perceptual basis of conceptual structure in idioms………………..55

§4.3 Metaphor, Metonymy and Idiom Comprehension...…………………….…..57

§4.3.1 Metaphors and idioms............................................................................57

§4.3.2 Conceptual metaphor theory and idiom comprehension….……….…..60

§4.3.2.1 The unidirectionality of metaphor….……………………………61

§4.3.2.2 Motivation for target and source in idioms…………….………..61

§4.3.2.3 Metaphorical implications and idioms.………………….………63

§4.3.2.4 Metaphors and image schemas in idioms………………………..64

§4.3.2.5 Invariance principle and idioms.……………………………..….65

§4.3.2.6 The conceptual nature……………………………………….…..66

§4.3.2.7 Hiding and highlighting and idioms….……………………….…67

§4.3.2.8 Metaphors and conceptual metaphors in idioms………...………68

§4.3.3 Metonymy and idioms............................................................................70

§4.3.4 Conceptual metonymy in idioms………………………………...…….72

§4.3.4.1 Metonymy as an access mechanism…………...…………..…….72

§4.3.4.2 Metonymy-representing relationships in idioms………………...74

§4.3.4.3 Selection of vehicles for metonymy in idioms………………..…75

§4.3.5 Metaphor-metonymy interaction in idioms……………………...…….76

§4.3.5.1 Metaphor from metonymy and metonymy within metaphor….....76

§4.3.5.2 The metonymic basis of metaphor in idioms…….………………78

§4.4 Conceptual Blending and Idiom Comprehension..……………………….….79

§4.4.1 Features of conceptual blending……………………….………………79

§4.4.2 Blending, a mental mechanism……………………..………………….81

vii

§4.4.3 The process of conceptual blending…………………...........……..…..82

§4.4.4 Further linguistic examples………………………………………...….83

Chapter Five Conclusion………………………………………………………….…84

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………….86

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………...87

在读期间公开发表的论文…………………………………………………………95

Acknowledgement…………………...………………………………………………96

Chapter One Introduction

Familiarity with idioms, proverbs, slang, and other fixed expressions is essential if

you want to speak naturally as a native English speaker. People seldom speak only with

literal language. As a matter of fact, it is almost unconceivable to talk about many

human activities and abstract concepts without using idiomatic phrases in our daily

communication. For example, when an English speaker tells you that you should not

keep something secret or private to yourself, he/she will use the expression spill the

beans. People describe the sudden death of somebody in terms of kick the bucket, and

describe getting angry in terms of blow your stack, taking risks as go out on a limb, the

action of gossip as chew the fat. If they prompt you to act, they will say the early bird

catches the worm. A traditional view sees these idioms and other formulaic expressions

as fossilized. Under the influence of this view, speakers must know these “dead”

metaphors and formulaic expressions by heart since the match of language forms and

their meanings is arbitrary. Speakers can use the idiomatic expressions without knowing

the reason why these phrases mean what they mean.

Idioms and formulaic expressions which embellish speech style are not simply the

decorations for language, but are an integral part of the language that facilitates social

interaction. Idioms and formulaic language can improve coherence in people’s speech.

For linguist, this kind of language can reveal basic patterns of human cognition. Idioms

and many formulaic expressions should not simply be defined as rigid or fossilized

language, since many idioms can be analyzed and decomposed to different extents and

reflect the metaphorical and metonymical features of human thought.

§1.1 Idiom, cognition and idiomaticity

According to the tradition, linguists believe idioms are linguistic units whose overall

meaning is not simply determined by the adding of the meanings of their component

parts together. For this reason, they are thought of as typical examples against the

linguistic principle of compositionality. In fact, it is inappropriate to look idioms as

non-decomposable language forms.

For cognitive linguists, they see idioms and other formulaic language as interesting

and important linguistic materials for the research of language and the human cognition.

Idioms often contain figurative meaning as the metaphorical or metonymical ones. The

English Idioms Study: A Cognitive Semantic Perspective

noticeable truth that all kinds of figurative expressions exist in idioms provides

evidence for the claim that people incline to conceptualize human activities and abstract

thought by the help of metaphor and metonymy.

Within the scope of cognitive linguistics, idioms are believed to be like other

language units are symbolic units, which connect a phonological representation with a

semantic representation (Taylor, 2002).

Idiom’s idiomaticity, in the narrow sense, this quality refers to idiom’s meaning.

Under this sense, the typical examples are idioms like kick the bucket,pull someone's

leg and spill the beans. Idiomaticity can also refer to the formal fixedness of expressions.

It means some idioms as by and large,for better or for worse etc. are fixed in their

forms (Fillmore et al., 1988).

§1.2 The definition of idioms

There are many disputations and numerous claims on the best way to define

idiomaticity and formulaic language. Those scholars compiling a dictionary or doing

research in the choice or arrangement of words have long noticed that in compiling a

dictionary, single word should not be the only proper language unit for lexical item to

be listed in a dictionary. But idioms and formulaic expressions should be listed down as

well. One practical definition states that formulaic language is “a sequence, continuous

or discontinuous, of words or other meaning elements, which is, or appears to be

prefabricated: that is, stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather

than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar” (Wray & Perkins,

2000, p. 1). According to this definition, formulaic language’s formulaicity stays in

sharp contrast with its productivity, which means the potentiality of using the

morphe-syntactic rules of language to create or comprehend novel expressions. Some

scholars claim that many language forms are to great extent formulaic.

§1.3 Traditional view on idioms

The traditional view toward idioms is that these phrases cannot be decomposed, they

are fixed as a whole, and that their meanings must be bound with their literal forms as a

whole to be stored in human memory as single lexical items (Sinclair, 1991). Unlike

comprehension of literal language, idioms are supposed to be understood in one of the

several ways:

Chapter One Introduction

(a). through the retrieval of their stipulated meanings from the lexicon after their

literal meanings have been rejected as inappropriate (Weinreich, 1969; Bobrow &

Bell, 1973);

(b). in parallel to processing of their literal meanings (Swinney & Cutler, 1979);

(c). directly without any analysis of their literal meanings (Gibbs, 1980, 1986);

(d). when there has been significant input to recognize a configuration as an idiom

(Cacciari & Tabossi, 1988; Tabossi & Zardon, 1993).

Gibbs (1994) thinks experimental studies have already shown that (c) and (d) give

the best descriptions of how idioms are processed. In the field of artificial intelligence,

many computational models processing language are inputted a special lexicon

containing idioms and formulaic phrases that are not decomposable, but which can be

quickly reached during language processing (Becker, 1975; Wilensky & Arens, 1980;

Gasser & Dyer, 1986; Jackendoff, 1995).

Traditionally, linguists often look idioms as “dead” metaphors. The typical example

is kick the bucket which may once have a metaphorical meaning, but people forget this

metaphorical meaning gradually with the time. In fact, through the etymological study

of this phrase, scholar discovers that it has a metonymic origin. With the disappearance

of metaphoricity over time, some idioms indeed can be looked as “dead” in this way.

However, even those idioms as kick the bucket seems can be analyzed to certain extent

under the sense that it may under the influence of the verb kick which hints the sudden

motion (Hamblin & Gibbs, 1999).

Dead metaphors may be easily confused with the conventional ones in idioms.

Figuring out whether an idiom is dead or just unconsciously conventional depends on,

besides other things, a thorough research for its performance in the language and its use

in our daily logical thinking.

There are a large number of primary conventional metaphors that are still in use,

certainly as many as needed to prove that what is conventional and set is not necessarily

dead (Lakoff & Turner, 1989). The problem of the traditional view of idioms partly

comes from its lack of consideration and its inexplicability of the existence of human

figurative pattern of thought. Therefore, the traditional view of idioms definitely cannot

account for the reason why people know the meanings of so many idioms even though it

is the first time they come across them.

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摘要：

i中文摘要英文习语是一种广泛存在的形式固定的语言现象。要说地道的英语，记忆大量习语是必要的。实际上，人们不需要刻意记忆所有遇到的习语。因为许多习语的比喻意义都是可以理解的，虽然它们的字面意义不寻常。研究英语习语，我们可以从中窥见隐藏在人类头脑里的概念体系。鉴于习语背后的认知基础，我们说习语是有理据的。许多习语可以由他们的主要形式而派生出另外的变体。习语的可变性证明习语可以被不同程度的分析分解。这一事否认了一种说法，这种说法认为习语是不可随意义拆分的，是死喻。本文分析的理论框架选自认知语义学内部的著名理论，并用其来分析某些习语。认知语义学的主导原则及哲学基础在第三章有所介绍。认知语义学的哲学基础...

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