美国反伊拉克战争歌曲的修辞学分析

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ABSTRACT
The Iraq War began on March 20，2003 and came to an end on August 31, 2010
when U.S. President Barack Obama declared an end to combat mission in Iraq. After
the Iraq War broke out, oppositions to the War occurred worldwide. Millions of
people staged mass protests; demonstrations and other forms of anti-war actions
continued throughout the occupation of Iraq. Among all the forms of anti-Iraq War
activities, songs contribute a lot. As one kind of musical form, the protest song has a
long history in western culture and has always been influential. By singing protest
songs, musicians tend to highlight social problems, gain outside support, encourage
more people to question the government and call for actions to prevent the war.
Songs are rhetorical. By the form of a song, a musician makes the listener
naturally accept his ideas, attitudes, and ethical values, etc. contained in both the song
discourse and performance. As a form of art, protest songs have aroused scholars’
interests. These scholars have done many researches mainly from the political,
cultural, social and rhetorical perspectives, but studies on protest songs during the Iraq
War period are not in abundance. Thus, in this thesis, the author select 5 relatively
more influential and representative anti-Iraq War Songs for a close scrutiny from the
perspective of rhetoric.
Based on practices of other rhetorical researchers, we first analyze situations of
anti-Iraq War songs—one is the Iraq War and the other is the 9/11 attack. The 9/11
attack serves as a blasting fuse of the breaking out of the Iraq War. Under the
situation, the Bush administration successfully justified the war in Iraq by employing
rhetorical skills in propaganda campaign. Behind its planning for military actions in
Iraq, the real aim is to gain control of huge oil resources in Iraq. Then the situation of
the Iraq War calls forth the creation of anti-Iraq War songs. As a response to the Iraq
War, anti-Iraq War songs work to influence the audiences a lot. Based on the
Neo-Aristotelian criticism, the author analyzes classical canons in anti-Iraq War song
discourses and performance in details, and examines the ways in which these songs
function rhetorically for a political change.
On the basis of the analyses of anti-Iraq War songs, the thesis reveals the reason
why anti-Iraq War songs can gain the audiences’ trust and influence them, that is,
these songs provide a means through which the listener can attempt to understand the
world and the war in a different light. In addition, anti-Iraq War songs also help to
raise the consciousness of the listeners through a process of self-persuasion. Instead of
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directly believing in song messages, the audiences are more likely to understand with
open minds and try to find some value embodied in song messages. Finally, once the
consciousness is raised, anti-Iraq War songs can work more effectively in persuading
the audience and help to realize the identification between the musician and the
audience.
Key words: The Iraq War, anti-Iraq War songs, rhetorical situation,
scapegoating theory, neo-Aristotelian criticism
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摘 要
2003 年 3 月 20 日美国以伊拉克藏有大规模杀伤性武器并暗中支持恐怖分子
为借口，绕开联合国安理会，公然单方面决定对伊拉克实施大规模军事打击。历
经 7 年零 5 个月后，2010 年 8 月 3 日美国总统奥巴马表示 8 月底在伊作战行动
将如约结束，8 月 31 日驻伊美军全部撤出。结束作战任务,伊拉克战争结束。
伊拉克战争是一场引发争议颇多，遭到大多数国家和民众质疑和反对的战
争。2003 年初爆发以来，大量反伊拉克战争游行及其他形式的反抗活动在全球
各地展开。作为反战运动的众多形式之一，反战示威歌曲在西方社会历史悠久，
影响深远。自 911 恐怖袭击事件和伊战以来，反对布什政府行径，决策和伊拉克
战争的歌声也大量涌现并取得了一定的影响力。此类歌曲旨在改变和加强人们对
于战争的理解，唤醒其反抗意识，起来质疑政府决策和能力，反抗战争，要求政
策的改变，最终结束战争实现和平。
歌曲本身就是一种修辞，其修辞性体现在使用了音乐这一形式来说服听众。
作为一种艺术形式，反战示威歌曲很早就引起了学者的关注，相关的研究和批评
性文章都有出现，大多从政治、文化和修辞的视角出发对歌曲文本进行研究。然
而，具体到伊战时期，对反战示威歌曲的研究稍显薄弱。本文拟选取反伊战争歌
曲中影响力较强流传度较广的 5 首歌曲，从修辞学的角度出发对这些歌曲进行分
析。
结合前人对反战示威歌曲的研究和理解，本文运用劳埃德·比切尔(Lloyd
Bitzer)的修辞情境论，详细分析 9/11 恐怖袭击和伊拉克战争背景下反战歌曲的
创 作 、 发 行 和 运 作 的 紧 急 状 态 (exigence) 、 受 众 (audience) 和 制 约 因 素
(constraints)。在 9/11 恐怖袭击发生后, 为了说服大众接受其观点，进而发动
对伊战争，布什政府巧妙地运用了修辞技巧；其真实目的是通过军事控制进而获
取伊拉克的石油资源。而正是伊拉克战争的爆发唤起了反伊拉克战争歌曲的出
现。反伊战争歌曲作为对伊战的一种回应，发挥了不可忽视的作用。本文使用新
亚里士多德修辞批评方法对选定的反伊拉克战争歌曲进行细致的分析，试图探析
反战示威歌曲影响听众，提高听众意识，收获共鸣和取得效果的修辞运作过程，
即修辞策略在反伊战歌曲中的应用。
通过分析，本文发现反伊拉克战争歌曲之所以能收获认可和影响大众，其中
的一个重要原因是歌曲本身为听众提供了一个了解这个世界和这场战争的不同
的视角，其歌词文本的情感表达、对残酷现实的描述以及个人演绎能力等都具有
极强的感染力和劝说性。此外，反以战争歌曲在提高听众意识方面也发挥了一定
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作用，听众并不仅是直接采纳歌曲所提供的信息，他们更倾向于自己去寻找歌曲
中所包含的价值。通过这种自我规劝和认知，听众的意识得以提高，反伊战歌曲
也有效地发挥了作用，最终实现了音乐家和听众的认同。
关键词：伊拉克战争 反伊拉克战争歌曲 修辞情景论 替罪羊策略 新
亚里士多德修辞批评
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... ii
摘要..................................................................................................................................iv
Chapter One Introduction.............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Research....................................................................................1
1.2 Organization of the Thesis.......................................................................................3
Chapter Two Literature Review.....................................................................................4
2.1 Protest Songs and Anti-Iraq War Songs in Western Culture................................... 4
2.1.1 Introduction of Protest Songs....................................................................... 4
2.1.2 History of Protest Songs...............................................................................5
2.1.3 Introduction of Anti-Iraq War Songs............................................................7
2.2 Previous Studies on Protest Songs and Anti-Iraq War Songs..................................8
2.2.1 Previous Studies on Protest Songs............................................................... 9
2.2.2 Previous Studies on Anti-Iraq War Songs...................................................11
2. 3 Summary................................................................................................................................ 12
Chapter Three Theoratical Preliminaries................................................................... 13
3.1 Lloyd Bitze’s Theory of Rhetorcal Situation......................................................... 13
3.1.1 The Exigence.............................................................................................. 14
3.1.2 The Audience..............................................................................................14
3.1.3 The Constraints...........................................................................................15
3.2 Kenneth Burke’s Scapegoating Theory................................................................. 16
3.2.1 Prelude to Scapegoat.................................................................................. 16
3.2.2 Scapegoat and Its Requirements................................................................ 17
3.3 Aristotle’s Three Artistic Proofs............................................................................ 18
3.3.1 Eathos........................................................................................................ 19
3.3.2 Pathos........................................................................................................ 19
3.3.3 Logos......................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Neo-Aristotelian Criticism.................................................................................... 21
3.4.1 Defining Neo-Aritotelian Criticism............................................................21
3.4.2 The Classical Canons................................................................................. 23
3.4.2.1 Invention................................................................................................. 23
3.4.2.2 Organization........................................................................................... 24
3.4.2.3 Style........................................................................................................25
3.4.2.4 Delivery.................................................................................................. 26
3.5 Summary................................................................................................................27
Chapter Four A Close Scrutiny of Anti-Iraq War Songs in America....................... 28
4.1 Rhetorical Situation of Anti-Iraq War Songs.........................................................28
4.1.1 Macro Rhetorical Triangulation of Anti-Iraq War Songs...........................28
4.1.2 The Situation of Anti-Iraq War Songs........................................................29
4.1.2.1 Enthymematic Argument in America’s Justification of the Iraq War... 30
4.1.2.2 Scapegoating in Justifying the Iraq War...............................................33
4.1.3 The Exigence in the Case of Anti-Iraq War Songs.....................................36
4.1.4 The Audience in the Case of Anti-Iraq War Songs.....................................36
4.1.5 The Constraints in the Case of Anti-Iraq War Songs................................. 37
4.2 A Neo-Aristotelian Critique of Anti-Iraq War Songs............................................ 38
4.2.1 Analysis of Anti-Iraq War Songs in Terms of Invention........................... 38
4.2.1.1 Arguments of Topoi.............................................................................. 38
4.2.1.2 Arguments of Three Artistic Proofs......................................................43
4.2.2 Analysis of Anti-Iraq War Songs in Terms of Organization...................... 50
4.2.3 Analysis of Anti-Iraq War Songs in Terms of Style...................................57
4.2.4 Analysis of Anti-Iraq War Songs in Terms of Delivery.............................60
4.3 Summary................................................................................................................61
Chapter Five Conclusion.............................................................................................. 63
5.1 A Brief Summary of the Findings......................................................................... 63
5.2 Limitations and Implications.................................................................................64
References.......................................................................................................................66
Appendices..................................................................................................................... 70
在读期间公开发表的论文............................................................................................. 84
Chapter One Introduction
1
Chapter One Introduction
1.1 Background of the Research
Widely-known around the world, the Iraq War refers to a military campaign which
began on March 20, 2003, with the invasion of Iraq by a multinational force led by
troops from the United States and the United Kingdom; and the last U.S. combat
brigade left Iraq on August 19, 2010. Lasting for seven years, the war ended after
American President Barack Obama declared an end to the combat mission on August 31,
saying that the United States had met its responsibility to that country and it was time to
solve problems at home. However, approximately 50,000 U.S. troops still remain in Iraq
and move to an “advice and assist” mission.①
Ever since the beginning, numerous forms of opposition to the Iraq War occurred
worldwide, both before and during the initial invasion of Iraq in 2003 and throughout
the subsequent invasion. Feelings of protest were popular and strong in lots of countries,
including the ally of America in the Iraq War—the United Kingdom. There appeared a
growing discontent among the public at the beginning of the war; demonstrations and
other forms of protest actions continued throughout the war.
According to Kenneth Burke (1966), language is a species of action, symbolic
action. Besides verbalization or talk, this “symbolicity” also includes other human
symbol systems, such as music, painting, dancing and so on (p.28). Among all the forms
of anti-Iraq War actions, anti-Iraq War songs contribute a lot as a tool of protesting.
These songs can be recognized as important modes to express thoughts, feelings, and
emotions of the composers and the singers. The famous American author, poet, and
philosopher, Ralph Waldo Emerson acknowledges the power of music by saying that,
“Music takes us out of the actual and whispers to us dim secrets that startle our wonder
as to who we are, and for what, whence, and whereto.”②The power of protest songs lies
in that it can enable the audience to understand their identity and position in the world.
In other words, protest songs contribute to the construction of reality. Through the lyric,
①For information about the Iraq War, please see the website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War
②For Ralph Waldo Emerson’s saying, please see the website: http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/1852
Rhetorical Analysis of Anti-Iraq War Songs in America
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melody and tempo of a song, a lens is created, through which people can view the world
and find a voice which can reflect the current situation and their living experiences.
Protest song has a rich history in America and was popularly known through 1960s
due to the rise of the Vietnam War. In that situation, protest songs were recognized as
successful mobilizing tools for political change. While general songs cover topics
ranging from love, hatred to other feelings of life, songs which impress the audience the
longest and deepest are often songs about protest. The moment unfairness or injustice of
a society emerges, protest song singers are ready to stand out and sing out their feelings
of opposition. With American former president George W. Bush facing dissent and
criticism, protest songs have re-emerged into American song fields since the 9/11
terrorist attack in 2001 and the following military conflicts in Iraq. Many previous
famous protest singers returned with new songs for the war; and some of the protest
songs were popular among listeners across the world and influenced people greatly.
Traditionally, rhetorical scholars view music through an instrumental lens, seeing
music as a means for a persuasive end. They have made great efforts to legitimize the
rhetorical study of music. For instance, Robert Francesconi makes a study by defining
music as communication: “As in any communicative transactions aspects of music
consist of performer, performance, listener, and context engaged in a meaning-giving
process” (Francesconi, 1986, p.40). By this definition, he considers music as
communication within the realm of discourse. As an artifact covering a wide field of
subjects, music is available for both rhetorical understanding and studying. Also
working along the line of the instrumental paradigm, James R. Irvine and Walter G.
Kirkpatrick theorize music as rhetoric by producing a list of justifications for their study
and pointing out the ways in which music functions rhetorically. In their speculations,
the musician is a rhetor who uses songs to “react to and modify the dominant
philosophical, political, religious, and aesthetic values of both general and specific
audiences” (Irvine & Kirkpatrick, 1972, p.272). This statement recognizes the agency of
the composers and singers to express their opinions through music even when song
messages challenges the status quo. This theory is applicable to the subsequent study of
protest songs for it opens a window for the audience to think about the message in the
song and decide whether their own values coincide with those of the musician.
While theorizing music as a vehicle for persuasion is quite valuable and of great
significance, here in this thesis, the author tries to further explore the ways in which
Chapter One Introduction
3
protest songs functioned rhetorically when the Iraq War broke out after the 9/11 attack.
As a point of departure, the author will present rhetorical theories, then analyze the
intention and agency of politicians involved in the war—President Bush and his
followers from Aristotelian and Burkean perspectives, and finally try to examine some
anti-Iraq War songs in the hope of pushing forward relevant researches in this field.
1.2 Organization of the Thesis
This thesis follows the logical progression of presenting theories and information
of the topic, analyzing the materials based on these theories. It consists of five parts.
Chapter One provides a general introduction to the current study of the subject.
The background and the objectives of the present research are also stated.
Chapter Two presents a detailed literature review of studies on protest songs and
anti-Iraq War songs in America.
Chapter Three discusses rhetorical theories to be employed in later chapters,
touching upon, firstly, the rhetorical situation, the scapegoat theory, and finally the
neo-Aristotelian criticism method.
Chapter Four explores rhetorical strategies employed in anti-Iraq War songs in
details. First, attention is paid to the analysis of the rhetorical situation of anti-Iraq War
songs. Then a neo-Aristotelian critique of anti-Iraq War songs is undertaken to see how
these songs work rhetorically in influencing the audiences and persuading them to call
for solutions, prevent and stop the war.
Chapter Five wraps up the thesis with a brief summary of the findings and points
put the limitations and implications of the research, implying a direction in which
further researches could be carried out.
摘要：

iiABSTRACTTheIraqWarbeganonMarch20，2003andcametoanendonAugust31,2010whenU.S.PresidentBarackObamadeclaredanendtocombatmissioninIraq.AftertheIraqWarbrokeout,oppositionstotheWaroccurredworldwide.Millionsofpeoplestagedmassprotests;demonstrationsandotherformsofanti-waractionscontinuedthroughouttheoccupat...

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